Wilson's Conceptual Analysis Strategies

Conceptual Tools for Conceptual Questions

To analyze complex concepts we might use one or more of the following strategies introduced by John Wilson (1963) in Thinking With Concepts1:

1. Focus on model cases (paradigm instances of the concept). If we asked the question “Are these two children being treated fairly by their parents?” we might begin to address it by identifying cases in which parents are investing equal resources and displaying equal concern for both of their children. We would then examine the key characteristics of these cases.

2. Focus on contrary cases (examples depicting the opposite of the concept). Considering contrary cases is useful because we can often better understand a concept through contrast, by considering cases that clearly are not examples of the concept we are exploring. Focusing again on our parent example above, we might look for contrary cases by identifying situations where the children are clearly not being treated fairly by their parents. We might consider a case, for example, in which one child is clearly favored by the parents in contrast to the other. For example, parents might give special treatment to a first-born son. We would then examine the leading characteristics of these cases in contrast to the model cases.

3. Focus on related cases: similar cases or concepts needed to understand the concept under discussion. With respect to our parenting question, let’s consider a similar case. To understand the concept of “equal treatment” in parenting, we might consider the concept of “equal treatment” in coaching. Imagine a coach who spends as much time developing the unskilled players as he does the highly skilled players, rather than favoring some over others. By considering this similar case, we shed light on the concept of “equal treatment.” Or, focusing on concepts that function in relationship with another concept, consider the question: What is a cell? To understand a cell, we need to understand other related concepts, such as molecules, nucleotides, DNA, RNA, enzymes, and proteins. We understand these concepts in relationship with one another. We cannot fully understand one without understanding the others. They are better understood as a group than individually.

4. Focus on borderline cases (cases with features both of the model case and of cases ordinarily considered different from the model case). In a borderline case, we see reasons both to apply the concept and to withhold it. Again, focusing on our parenting example, let’s say that one of the two children is severely disabled and the parents therefore spend the majority of their income on that child, rendering it impossible for them to fund their other child’s college education. This might be a borderline case of “equal treatment” because the parents place the needs of the disabled child over the needs of the other child, but they do so for good reason. Or consider a different example. If a child touches a stove and gets burned, the parent might say, “There, you got your punishment!” Yet the parent doesn’t mean that the child is literally being punished, but that the child being burned is somewhat like punishment. It has at least some features of punishment. Yet this case would never be used as a dictionary example of the classic meaning of punishment.

Wilson’s distinctions can also help us examine questions about peace.

Consider the question: Is it possible to attain peace in the Middle East? In addressing this question, we need to know how widely or how narrowly we are using the term “Middle East.” This should be a straightforward stipulation (“By the Middle East I have in mind…”).

Once this is done, we can move to the more difficult analysis of the concept of “peace” intended in the question. What degree or forms of “peace” does one intend? What forms of “peace” can one imagine? What are some model cases of “peace”? What are some contrary, related and borderline cases? By “peace”, do we mean all peoples living in friendship, mutual respect, and mutual security (model case)? What other concepts are intimately connected with “peace” (related cases)? Suppose one country, being militarily superior, in effect fully conquers its “enemies” imposing “peaceful” conditions on them (absence of overt resistance or violation of imposed law). Would such a state be a state of “peace”? Is “peace” consistent with mutual hatred (borderline case)? Or suppose an agreement is reached in which those who sign for one of the groups agree to conditions that the majority of its members reject (borderline case)? Or suppose one of the groups is forced by vastly inferior military power to accept conditions that are unjust (for example, giving up much of their land and potential development) merely to gain some level of freedom and self-government (borderline case)? Would we consider any of these as achieving “peace?” To figure out what we mean by “peace” we need to consider, in addition to a rich set of cases, the context from which (and the history in which) this question emerges. We need to consider, for example, the current structure of power in the Middle East and the agendas of all of the participant nations, what outcomes are possible and which of those, if any, warrant the term “peace?”

There are no easy answers to complex conceptual questions, but analyzing them helps us understand the nature and limits of our ideas. We are, for example, a long way from understanding the concept of world peace because its meaning is obfuscated by the machinations of power on the one hand, and human irrationality on the other. For the powerful, peace probably comes down to conditions under which their dominance is quietly accepted. Peace then means their group getting what they want, rightly or wrongly. There appear to be two conflicting logics at work: the logic of peace (ideally speaking) and the logic of peace (in a world of vastly unequal military and economic power).

When considering a complex conceptual question:

• State the question clearly and precisely.
• Identify its significant concepts and examine those whose meanings are unclear.
• Construct model, related, contrary, and borderline cases for each key concept.
• Consider different viewpoints and the context.
• Note the implications of adopting a particular definition.
• Develop possible “answers” while keeping the question’s complexities in view.